Tag Archives: Georgia Women’s History

Nettie C. Hall: Fitzgerald’s ‘Mother Enterprise’

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A sepia-toned portrait of suffragist and early woman entrepreneur Nettie C. Hall with glasses, wearing a white blouse with a dark collar, looking directly at the camera.
Anzonetta “Nettie” Crabb Hall (1841-14 June 1908). Courtesy Blue & Gray Museum.

Nettie Crabb was born in Brownstown, Indiana, in 1841, but further details of her early life are elusive. She married Dr. Robert L. Weems, a physician who served as a surgeon during the Civil War. Widowed in 1880, she moved to Bird Island, Minnesota, where she worked as a milliner. In 1882 she homesteaded in Wessington Springs, Dakota Territory (present-day South Dakota), and worked in a pharmacy, which she would eventually own, the only known woman in the territory to do so. In The Selected Papers of Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony (2009), Ann D. Gordon noted that Nettie was “well skilled in her profession (pharmacy).”

Nettie married another Civil War veteran, Cleveland T. Hall, in 1884, but was widowed again in 1886. Ever busy, Nettie was elected as a trustee of the Wessington Springs school in 1887 and 1888, and was also served as an election judge. In 1889, she argued for women’s suffrage at a state constitutional convention. Later that year she served as vice-president of the Jerauld County Equal Suffrage Association. In 1890 she was prominent in the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU).

In 1895, she was one of the first settlers of Fitzgerald. where she established the Fitzgerald Enterprise, the first major newspaper in the community. She also remained active in the WCTU and was known for her support of railroad workers. Her first son, Victor, had died of exposure when his train was caught in a snowstorm in Minnesota. When Nettie C. Hall died at the age of 68 on 14 June 1908, she was a legend of the community and her lifetime of work and advocacy was celebrated. In 1910, railroad workers and the WCTU erected the “Mother Enterprise” drinking fountain in her honor.

A stone fountain featuring a spherical top and an engraved base that reads 'Mother Enterprise,' set in a park-like area with buildings and parked cars in the background.

Fitzgerald Commercial Historic District, National Register of Historic Places

Alma Thomas House, Circa 1889, Columbus

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A Queen Anne house with a light yellow exterior, decorative trim, and a front porch surrounded by a white picket fence, located on a grassy lot.

This outstanding Queen Anne cottage in the Rose Hill neighborhood of Columbus was the childhood home of Alma Woodsey Thomas (1891-1978), a nationally prominent African-American artist and cultural icon. Interestingly, the home was located in an otherwise exclusively white neighborhood. A 2001 fire damaged the house but it was restored soon thereafter.

Family tradition states that the manuscript for The Souls of Black Folk, by W.E.B. Dubois, was typed on the front porch of the Thomas home by Alma Thomas’s cousin, Inez, who was Dubois’s secretary. Alma’s parents, Amelia Cantey (?-1938) and John Harris Thomas (1860-1942), were members of Columbus’s small but prosperous upper middle class Black community. Nonetheless, the family moved to Washington, D. C., in 1907, to escape the racial tensions of the Jim Crow South.

Alma Thomas enrolled at Howard University and in 1924 was that school’s first fine arts graduate. She later earned her masters degree from Columbia University. Thomas had a successful career as a teacher at Washington’s Shaw Junior High School for 35 years. Among her accomplishments were the organization of an Arts League and the development of a program to create art galleries within local schools. In 1943, she helped establish the Barnett Aden Gallery, one of the first Black-owned galleries in the United States. Ms. Thomas retired from teaching in 1960 to focus on her own art, focusing on abstraction as a member of the Washington Colorist School. A significant figure in Washington’s art world, she was associated with the Little Paris Group and Howard University’s Gallery of Art.

Thomas was the first Black woman to have a solo show at the Whitney Museum and the first to have a work in the White House permanent collection. Her work is collected by the National Gallery of Art, Whitney Museum, Corcoran Gallery, and the Smithsonian Institution, among many other venerable institutions. NASA owns several of Thomas’ paintings from her “Space” series.

National Register of Historic Places

Smith-McCullers House (Carson McCullers Center), 1932, Columbus

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Exterior view of the Craftsman bungalow that was the home of novelist Carson McCullers in Columbus, Georgia, featuring green walls, a front porch, and landscaped yard.

This Craftsman bungalow was the Columbus home of renowned novelist and playwright Carson McCullers (1917-1967), famous for her novels The Heart is a Lonely Hunter, Reflections in a Golden Eye, The Member of the Wedding, The Ballad of the Sad Cafe, and Clock Without Hands. It is typical of the Craftsman architecture that characterizes the neighborhood. To further the legacy of its celebrated resident, the Carson McCullers Center for Writers and Musicians is today a house museum and artist residency space owned and operated by Columbus State University.

Lula Carson Smith was born in Columbus, Georgia, on 19 February 1917 to Lamar (1889-1944) and Vera Marguerite Waters Smith (1890-1955). Lamar was a jeweler and watchmaker. Upon graduation from Columbus High School in 1934, Carson moved to New York City, where she began to write, publishing her first work in Story magazine in 1936. Even as she began to have success as a writer, McCullers’s life was rife with difficulty. A misdiagnosed and untreated case of rheumatic fever in childhood caused a series of cerebral strokes as she aged. By her mid-20s, Carson was partially paralyzed on her left side. She made regular visits back to Columbus at this time. In 1937 she wed Reeves McCullers (1913-1953), in what has been described as a lavender marriage.

Front view of a Craftsman bungalow with a green exterior, white trim, and a brick pathway, known as the Carson McCullers House, located in Columbus, Georgia.

When Lamar died at his jewelry shop in 1944, Marguerite sold the Columbus house and moved to Nyack, New York, and purchased a Victorian now known as the Carson McCullers House, also owned by Columbus State University. Carson lived in the Nyack house with her mother and sister, and after World War II, with her husband, who committed suicide in 1953. Later, Carson bought the house from her mother and lived there until her death. A final massive stroke in 1967 ended her life at age 50.

Hillcrest-Wildwood Circle Historic District, National Register of Historic Places


John R. Dawson House, Circa 1837, Columbus

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Front view of the Old Dawson Place, or Gordonido, a historic house with white columns and pink exterior, featuring a blue door and surrounded by greenery. Fire damage is visible.

This historic Greek Revival home, built by John R. Dawson (1810-1852) when the Wynnton area was first being settled and long known as the Old Dawson Place, is most commonly known as Gordonido today. A fire on 7 October 2023 did serious damage to the structure, especially to the roof and upper floor, as is visible in this photograph.

Dawson was a pioneer settler of Columbus, whose family relocated to the area from Maryland. He was a partner in the firm of Hill and Dawson, a successful planters supply company. Wynnton in 1837 was not part of the city of Columbus and the Dawson home was one of just a few country estates in the area. Originally situated on six acres, the property has been reduced to two acres over its nearly 200 year history.

After Dawson’s death in 1852, his heirs remained on the property until it was sold to Sallie L. Gilbert circa 1878-1880. A warranty deed identifies J. T. Willis as the next owner, in 1885. Frederick Barrett Gordon, president of the Columbus Manufacturing Company, purchased the Old Dawson Place in 1913 and his wife, Rosa Crook Martin Gordon, a founding member of the Woman’s Club of Columbus, oversaw significant improvements to the property. It was rechristened Gordonido, and was modernized while retaining its historical appearance. When the Gordons’ daughter, Margaret Gordon Richards inherited the home in 1949, further renovations, meant to return the house to its original appearance, were entrusted to local architect James J. W. Biggers.

A brochure published by the Historic Columbus Foundation in the 1970s noted: “Gordonido is exquisitely kept and one of the city’s most beautiful homes. It is recognized as one of Columbus’ most valued antebellum structures.“

I’m unsure as to any plans for stabilization or restoration at this time, but it would be a shame to lose this landmark.

National Register of Historic Places

Lenora Myers Starling Fountain, 1929, Columbus

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A close-up of the Lenora Myers Starling Fountain, featuring a graceful statue of a woman poised atop a decorative basin, surrounded by lush greenery.

In a place that has long proclaimed itself the Fountain City, the Lenora Myers Starling Fountain stands out as perhaps its most beloved. The Classically-inspired figure of a maiden rising from the waves peers to the skies from a bowl elevated by dolphins. It anchors a small, beautifully maintained triangular park at the intersection of Buena Vista Road and Wynnton Road. Dedicated in December 1929, it was commissioned by Mrs. Starling’s niece, Eleanor Moore King Hatcher. I believe Mrs. Hatcher was the mother of Claud A. Hatcher, the inventor of Chero-RC Cola.

Close-up of the Lenora M. Sarling Fountain showing the inscription 'In Memory Of Leonora M. Sarling' on the bowl of the fountain.

Information on the Carrara marble fountain’s namesake is a bit scarce. According to all local references (with the exception of a National Register of Historic Places nomination) I’ve encountered, her name was Lenora Starling, not Leonora Sarling as carved into the bowl of the fountain.* According to a contemporary account in the Columbus Ledger, Mrs. Starling “moved to Columbus with her husband and became a “leader in civic, social and religious circles here. She was a pioneer in the Christian Science faith in Columbus and was active in numerous charitable endeavors.” She was also known as a leader in the local women’s suffrage movement in the early 1900s and was a founding member of the Columbus Confederated Women’s Club. Her loss in an automobile accident was described as a “tragic death while engaged in an errand of mercy.”

Close-up of the Lenora Myers Starling Fountain featuring intricate carvings of fish and water elements.

Ornamental fountains of Classical influence were a staple in the Victorian era, and the aesthetic remained popular for decades. Locals have dubbed the unnamed figure adorning the Starling fountain “Mrs. Columbus”. The ageless icon has kept watch over the Wynnton neighborhood for nearly a century and her visage is so connected to the city that she now commands a four-story presence on a mural at Heritage Tower.

A close-up of the Lenora Myers Starling Fountain statue, depicting a woman in flowing robes with one hand raised to shield her eyes, surrounded by greenery.

A contemporary account described her as “the majestic figure of a woman poised in the attitude of soaring through space. One hand shields her eyes, as she gazes into the future.” This was particularly poignant in 1929, the year the nation entered the Great Depression, but remains timeless in its optimism.

A decorative fountain at a small triangular park, surrounded by green trees and colorful flowers, dedicated to Leonora Myers Starling.

*- If I can confirm that Mrs. Starling was indeed Mrs. Sarling, I will gladly update.

Wynn’s Hill-Overlook-Oak Circle Historic District, National Register of Historic Places

Blackmar-Ellis House, 1884 + 1909, Columbus

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A front view of a grand house illuminated at night, featuring classical columns and a decorative pediment. The structure showcases a blend of Neoclassical Revival and Colonial Revival architectural styles, with elaborate details and a welcoming entrance.

This house was built for John Blackmar (1853-1931) in the Queen Anne style in 1884. It was redesigned in 1909 to its present appearance, a hybrid of two of the most popular styles of the era: Neoclassical Revival and Colonial Revival. The architect for the update was Henrietta Dozier, the first professional female architect in Georgia, and the first formally trained female architect in the South. She added the portico, porte cochere, solarium, and dormers on the roof.

A illuminated historic house showcasing Queen Anne, Neoclassical Revival, and Colonial Revival architectural styles, captured at night.

Susie Blackmar (1895-1981), one of Jack and Susie Wellborn Blackmar’s (1860-1941) five children, was married here to John Tyler “Jack” Ellis (1890-1958) in 1918 and resided here until her death in 1981. In the 1940s, while their son John D. Eisenhower was stationed at Fort Benning, General Dwight and Mamie Eisenhower, the future president and first lady, were guests of Mrs. Ellis. Since Mrs. Ellis’s death, the house has served as a residential care home, funeral home, antiques store, and presently, a pediatrician’s office.

High Uptown Historic District, National Register of Historic Places

Ford Clinic, 1930 + 1935, Bryan County

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A small white historic building with a metal roof, featuring a black door and windows. An American flag hangs in front, and there is a sign nearby identifying the building as the Ford Clinic.

This structure served the medical needs of Ways Station-Richmond Hill from 1930 until 1951. According to the Coastal Bryan Heritage Trail, it was established by Mrs. Allethaire Ludlow Rotan as the Ways Health Association on 1 May 1930 and offered primary care to the community. It was first located near the present-day Community House, but was moved and expanded when the Fords assumed control in 1935. It played a central role in the eradication of malaria in the area. Dr. C. F. Holton, with nurses Constance Clark and Ella Reed Sams, served the clinic in the Ford era. And thanks to the generosity of the Fords, medical and dental services were free to all. The clinic ceased operation after the death of Clara Ford and was moved to its present location in the Bryan Neck-Keller area in 1951. Today, its home to a boutique known fittingly as “The Clinic”.

Mt. Zion Missionary Baptist Church Cemetery, Hancock County

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Mt. Zion’s historic cemetery is quite large and situated on hilly terrain. There is a nice variety of memorials, including many modern commercial types, but mixed among them are quite a few vernacular types, including these local granite stones. The names of the decedents are long lost.

Jeff Mapp (1900-1973)

This is one of several markers by Eldren Bailey found in Mt. Zion. This one has been painted white and was purchased through the Houston Funeral Home.

Willis James

I believe this is a child’s grave, since it identifies the decedent as “Master”. This term is commonly used with children. Like many memorials by Eldren Bailey, this one has been “buried” a few inches into the ground.

Louise Hillman

This Elden Bailey-produced memorial was sold through Atlanta’s Haugabrooks Funeral Home.

Deacon Lueagon Elbert Moss (1873-1958) and Mariah Moss (1872-1959) + Arthur Moss

The memorial for Deacon & Mrs. Moss is typical of the stenciled concrete markers found in the older sections of the cemetery. Arthur Moss may have been one of their children. His memorial is hand made.

Caroline Barrow ((1850?-1901)

This one of several older commercial marble memorials in the cemetery.

Robert Lee Bennett (1950-1970)

This handmade memorial is bordered with small rocks or pebbles. I believe there was something attached where the hole is now.

Cyrus Howell (1878-1956) Findagrave lists 1874 as the birthdate, but I think that is an error.

Mr. Howell was the oldest deacon at Mt. Zion at the time of his death.

Addie Lawrence (Dates undetermined; Findagrave records it as 1874-1961)

This is another nice example of a vernacular memorial using stencils that adds an extra touch with the impression of a dove. Mrs. Lawrence was a well-loved member of the Mt. Zion community and worked as a midwife for many years. In 1930, with M. C. Lawrence, Mattie Lawrence, M. F. Hillman, A. F. Tucker, R. B. Glover, Cyrus Howell and Lucy Kendrick, she formed a benevolent institution known as the “Band of Faithful Workers”. According to their legal petition filed with the county, the purpose of their institution was “caring for the sick and burial of the dead”.

Gillespie Memorial Hospital, 1937, Cordele

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Dr. Augustus S. Clark, who founded the Gillespie Normal School in 1902, also sought to improve health care for Cordele’s Black community. In 1925, a gift of $1000 helped establish a hospital, named the Charles Helm Hospital for the benefactor. At the time, the nearest Black hospital was located in Americus. Mrs. Eula Burke Johnson, a graduate of Gillespie Normal School, was the first nurse. The hospital was initially located on the second floor of one of the early school buildings and consisted of two beds and an operating room. Local doctors, white and African-American, served on the staff. The hospital also trained nurses.

The present structure, pictured above, was built in 1937. It had 25 beds and was named for William Gillespie, who donated funds for its construction. Nurse Johnson served as the hospital director and held weekly clinics for midwives. The hospital served the community until the integration of Crisp Regional Hospital in the late 1960s or early 1970s.

Gillespie-Selden Historic District, National Register of Historic Places

Elizabeth Evelyn Wright (1872-1906) & Greater Saint Phillip Methodist Church, 1875, Talbotton

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According to Voorhees University: “Elizabeth Evelyn Wright (1872-1906) was an African-American educator, social reformer, and founder of Voorhees College in Denmark, South Carolina. She was born [one of 27 children of a carpenter father and a mother who may have been full-blooded Cherokee] on April 3, 1872, in [the Smith Hill neighborhood] Talbotton, Georgia, during a time of racial segregation and limited educational opportunities for African Americans.

Wright was raised in poverty but was determined to receive an education. At the age of 16, she left home and traveled to Tuskegee, Alabama, where she enrolled at the Tuskegee Institute. She worked as a domestic servant to support herself while pursuing her studies.

Inspired by the educational philosophy of Booker T. Washington, the founder of Tuskegee Institute, Wright believed in the transformative power of education for African Americans. After completing her studies at Tuskegee, she returned to South Carolina and started teaching at the Macedonia School in Denmark.

Realizing the need for higher education opportunities for African Americans in the region, Wright embarked on a mission to establish a college. She started by raising funds and gathering support from local communities, churches, and philanthropists. In 1897, she founded Denmark Industrial School, which later became known as Voorhees Industrial School and eventually Voorhees College.

Voorhees College provided vocational training and academic education to African-American students, focusing on agriculture, carpentry, home economics, and other practical skills. Wright believed that education should not only prepare students for employment but also instill character, discipline, and moral values.

Elizabeth Evelyn Wright’s dedication to education and her tireless efforts to establish Voorhees College played a significant role in expanding educational opportunities for African Americans in South Carolina. She passed away on December 14, 1906, but her legacy lives on through Voorhees College, which continues to educate students to this day.“

The church was originally known as St. Phillips A. M. E. Church, but later changed its affiliation to Methodist. It was organized by freedmen on 15 April 1870. The original building was destroyed by a storm in 1875 but under the guidance of Rev. A. S. Grangin, was rebuilt later that same year. Part of Jefferson Street which runs beside the church, was renamed Elizabeth Wright Avenue in her memory.